Perceived inclusivity and trust in protected area management decisions among stakeholders in Alaska

Read the free Plain Language Summary for this article on Journal blog. The irreversible losses of critical ecosystems and increasingly noticeable changes to social-ecological systems have ignited public awareness nature conservation garnered support both dampening global environmental change (Bernstein et al., 2008; Chan 2020; Leiserowitz 2019) generating more equitable policies that govern use natural resources (Mace, 2014; Smith & McDonough, 2001; Tyler Degoey, 1995). contentious history land acquisition regulations underpin opinions about how governments manage create even deeper divides between agencies local communities. Investigations (mis)representation stakeholder interests in consequently gained traction better understand enact value pluralism, as well strive strengthen relationships their constituencies (Cebrián-Piqueras Palomo van Riper 2020). Indeed, involvement management decisions is instrumental success initiatives relies trust (Smith 2013) information exchange (Gould 2019; Reed 2010). Although a sizeable body literature has recognized successful need involve listening values community perspectives, power dynamics levels (Berkes, 2007; Oldekop 2016; 2013; Staddon 2021; Stern Coleman, 2015), there limited empirical understanding combination reasons why stakeholders hold different perceptions inclusivity. Here, we examine factors related transparency communication influence beliefs adequate inclusion residents across U.S. state Alaska by agencies. concept inclusive originated from concern multiple approaches valuing were contested rather than viewed complementary Saberwal, 1996; Tallis Lubchenco, 2014). By dichotomizing goals into binary system consists either intrinsic or purposes, scientists risked overlooking full complexity interrelationships people (Palomo West For example, area-based been proposed solutions pressing issues including biodiversity loss climate (Dinerstein Wilson, 2016). long-term large, interconnected swaths requires buy-in groups espouse an array values, especially voices Indigenous historically underrepresented (Glaser Likewise, traditional ecological knowledge rooted non-Western understandings landscape be incorporated (Charnley 2007) ways expand breadth which agreement shift focus conflict appreciation whole. In practice, all held expressed cannot equally served represented decision-making, but it possible simultaneously achieve outcomes effective economic prosperity through societal transformations towards sustainable futures (Chan These can, part, accomplished community-based link with benefits (Kellert 2000; Salafsky Wollenberg, 2004). However, not panacea starting point managers develop capacity engagement build strategies successfully cope competing demands Blaikie, 2006). other words, works improve reducing tensions wide range decision-making processes. definition meaning varied widely within sciences (see Table 1). Building previous research context protected areas (ENVISION, López-Rodríguez 2020), define process developing answering questions help solve resource problems emerge balancing consequences visions conservation. Ideally, model considers scale being managed, establishes legitimacy management, uses verifiable develops multicultural ethic 2004; Farvar 2018; Musavengane Leonard, 2019). lofty theoretically posited research, yet no studies date established psychometric evaluating perceived inclusivity and, therefore, degree achieved efforts represent interests. Thus, strong measure inclusivity, individual's perception they are valued reasonable decisions. idea integral explaining evolution United States since turn 20th century when many began managed federal government. Since 1874, Yellowstone National Park was established, national park circulated around globe protecting charismatic wonders such geysers waterfalls (Nash, Over time, ideology restructured challenged colonialism, democracy capital (Buscher Fletcher, leading current Western views struggle deal engaging (Ludwig 2001). Moving philosophical discussion one effectiveness these ideological transitions, identify meaningful achieving agenda provide standards measuring fluidly connected environments (Fazey Gould Pullin Knight, Raymond Previous suggested instilled positively influences thus, representation We where actor believes truth, reliability capability another agency (Stern 2015). There its role perceive opportunities afforded express induce systems. al. (2013) argued five dimensions trust, disposition (i.e. general tendency others), bestowed government agencies), shared personal viewpoints desired also trustee), moral competency individual will adhere codes perform selfless behaviours accordingly) technical guided sound science skills necessary tasks). correlated, remain distinguishable 2013). Other authors distinguished trustor trustee (Molm, 2006), drawn social theory (e.g. Earle Cvetkovich, 1995; Riper, Wallen, 2016) shaping trustee. This work multi-dimensional conceptualization relevant construct problems. Studies focusing community–agency conducted various contexts results indicating (Davenport Leahy Anderson, Payton 2005). When establish maintain forms community, stable relationship formed then increases institutional resilience (Folke 2005; Stern, Baird, Consequently, can carry out functions throughout disturbances while leaving room adapt new knowledge, skills, acquired Knowledge sharing most likely occur if decision-makers deemed trustworthy (Strauser Alternatively, lack implications managing ecosystems. study parks, identified positive predictor compliance (Stern, 2008). Specifically, untrusting who lived near Great Smoky Mountains reported high participation illegal hunting, harvesting fishing. Similarly, Matera (2016) found angler marine projects closely institutions. maintaining agency–community varies Service (NPS) specifically, place-based encouraged employees travel advance career (Everhart, turn-over rate disrupt deteriorate members NPS employees. shown crucial Therefore, establishing careful consideration sources, place origin disseminated groups, along channel used deliver (Tucker Napier, Consistency communications vital sustain trusting (Kubo Supriyanto, 2010) ensure (Hausmann Pollnac regularity contact adjacent communities does guarantee healthy relationships, networks strained numerous barriers. (Shackleton misalignment concerns priorities (Schenk Wald result failed attempts at communication. tasked difficult challenge providing offering shape guide own (Tam 2021). reason, learning Two frameworks describe absorbed effectively goals. First, conventional focuses one-way transmission whereby disseminate prompt independently environment (National Academies Sciences Medicine, 2017). Such methods assume rejection scientific driven knowledge. criticized because assumes ‘one-size-fits-all’ approach acknowledge pre-existing variable degrees (Allum Also, lasting effects kind dissemination weaker compared incorporates experiences. place, second framework emphasized importance conceptualized among (Bandura, 1977; Schusler 2003) involves behavioural adaptation response context-specific (McElreath Morgan 2012). method creation dialogue managers, broaden one's viewpoint increase produced (Cash 2003; Culwick Eriksson Pahl-Wostl While utilized varying degrees, gap learning—ranging formal informal outlets—relate examined here building influenced Alaskan residents' whether felt included those part (Lawrence 1997), position outcome test decision-making. hypothesized four would predictors Figure Furthermore, given past showed correlations civic (Knapp 1999), sources management. To explain completely, structural equation modelling techniques suite variables. Our living Alaska, comprised 41 million hectares arctic subarctic landscapes. largely rural landscape, economy predominantly stimulated extraction, jobs, seafood exports industrial tourism (Goldsmith, Visitors alike often attracted due vast amount open space, uniquely characteristic landscapes wildlife (Stamberger 2018). turn, industry caused increased development large influx seasonal visitors. Almost two-thirds total area (Vincent A continued generate significant challenges today As proportion lands interests, ideal site collected data June–August 2020 via online survey administered panel Qualtrics interface questionnaire Supporting Information). Given our aimed ‘average’ resident, criteria chosen reflect 2010 Census basis gender age. respondent initiated survey, asked indicate gender, age zip code. Once proportional quotas met, access restricted so demographic categories oversampled. 920 individuals. Of navigated 189 did begin process. From submitted responses, 170 eligible primary residence outside state, 114 could validated seven excluded speeding survey. final sample 398 residents. Survey respondents gave written informed consent, human subjects approval provided University Illinois Urbana-Champaign Institutional Review Board #18679. measured using six items. inspired Arnstein's (1969) description citizen updated overarching themes literature. Respondents much agreed disagreed statement 5-point Likert (1) ‘Strongly Disagree’ (5) Agree’. exploratory factor analysis (EFA) dimensionality developed had tested research. robust maximum likelihood extraction parameter estimates varimax rotation clarify factors. Results EFA indicated emerged 45.5% variance explained. acceptable internal consistency (? = 0.83). two drivers drew (Barber, 1987; 2013): (a) (b) governments, (c) (d) competency. statements scale. asking learn dichotomous (yes/no) All consultation partners 10 Executive Committee project. spanned agencies, officials, scholarly articles, professional societies, newspapers, meetings, websites webinars) mechanisms gaining family friends, media, hunting organizations groups). covariance-based two-step regression estimation procedure direct (Anderson Gerbing, 1988). calculated loadings each item verify items exceeded 0.40 threshold (Hair 2009). Model fit assessed ?2 value, however, indicator's sensitivity sizes larger 200 (Kline, statistics referenced, root mean square error (RMSEA) ?0.07 (Steiger, 2007), comparative index (CFI) ?0.90 (Bentler, 1990) standardized residual (SRMR) (Hu Bentler, 1999). lavaan package 0.6-8 RStudio Version 1.3.1093 statistical (Rosseel, missing patterns constructs. 2.3% 12.1% marked ‘not applicable’ questionnaire. took steps determine random (MAR), completely (MCAR) (MNAR). Little's (1988) MCAR (p < 0.01), > 0.24). MAR. finding, full-information (FIML) applied scales account (Allison, 2003). analysed 12 source variables (i.e., friends family, organizations, principal component (PCA) reduce interpretability. retained resulting components PCA eigenvalue greater 1.0 (Kaiser, 1960). interpreted based loading scores, assumption producing largest scores defining component's characteristics. distribution 60.3% male 39.7% female 2). majority (73.6%) White, followed American Indian/Native (13.3%), Asian (8.0%), (4.8%), Black/African (4.0%) Pacific Islander (2.0%). 3.3% preferred answer question. select options racial identity. educated, every (21.1%) reporting 4-year college higher. 23.6% earning 2-year degree, 33% vocation/trade school certificate, 34% diploma 2.01% less school. (69.4%) earned $100,000 household annually average 44.5 years (SD 15.2). (50.3%) Anchorage, Matanuska-Susitna (15.1%), Fairbanks-North Star (8.8%), Kenai Peninsula (8.5%) Juneau (5.3%). remaining 12% Alaska. relatively low believe 3). negatively worded (M 2.41, SD 0.97), suggesting others. disagreement study. lowest 2.27, 1.05), 2.65, 2.78, 1.08). Residents 2.81, 1.12). reduced accounting 69% 4). components, three components: Public Information Sources (C1); Community (C2); Environmental (C7). Component C1 described professionals practices. Individuals obtained societies whereas lower family. C2 members. organizations; newspapers media. C7 defined primarily obtaining groups. evaluated properties scales. Fit indices confirmatory (CFA) (?2 278.13; df 125; RMSEA 0.056; CFI 0.94; SRMR 0.44; see reliable Cronbach ? coefficients ranging 0.73 0.90 composite 0.74 0.91. ?0.40 proceeded estimate model. path good 365.19; 182; 0.05; 0.05). Consistent hypotheses, (? 0.46), belief—or disbelief—that adhered code drove Three constructs accounted pattern variation learned 0.16), 0.15) advocacy 0.13) increased, too Inclusive focused should conserved improving strategies. existed population, latent (Reed 2010; Tucker 2001) shaped moderate Sources, Sources) helpful explanatory suggest carefully considered hinges trustors trustees line (Liljeblad, 2005), confirmed construct. correlated exogenous variables, hypotheses supported. others covary (2013). Goto (1996), observed dispositions (as trust) processed differently respondents. It antecedent concepts, particularly high. Because landmass government, may (lack of) experience, relying absence (Leahy measured, only dimension finding policy ability make engage deliberation future. knowing made (Nie, important quality process, signals key conflicts over subsistence ambivalence toward tourism; Johnson 2021) equitably addressed. co-creation reflects diverse (Lind Tyler, 1988; 2015; Vaske 2007). ease resolution encourage voluntary regulations, thereby influencing stewardship Young Communication allows transmit expertise built (Calvet-Mir underscores strategic